星空女人频道: 2013-12-15

2013年12月21日星期六

Birth of black hole kills the radio star

These exploding stars use all of their energy to emit one last strong beam of highly energetic radiation -- known as a gamma-ray burst -- before they die.

Up until now, it was thought all gamma-ray bursts were followed by a radio afterglow -- a premise that a team of Australian astronomers of the Centre for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) at Curtin University and the University of Sydney originally set out to prove correct.

"But we were wrong. After studying an ultra-sensitive image of gamma-ray bursts with no afterglow, we can now say the theory was incorrect and our telescopes have not failed us," lead researcher and Curtin research fellow Dr Paul Hancock said.

The technique used to create the ultra-sensitive image was recently published in The Astrophysical Journal.

It allowed for the stacking of 200 separate observations on top of each other to re-create the image of a gamma-ray burst in much better quality -- yet, no trace of a radio afterglow was found.

"In our research paper we argue that there must be two distinct types of gamma-ray burst, likely linked to differences in the magnetic field of the exploding star," Dr Hancock said.

"Gamma-ray bursts are thought to mark the birth of a Black Hole or Neutron Star -- both of which have super-dense cores. But Neutron Stars have such strong magnetic fields (a million times stronger than those of Black Holes) that producing gamma-rays are more difficult.

"We think that those stars that collapse to form a Neutron Star have energy left over to produce the radio afterglow whereas those that become Black Holes put all their energy into one final powerful gamma-ray flash."

New work is underway to test the team's theory and to see if there are other subtle ways in which the two types of bursts differ.

"We now have to take a whole new look at gamma-ray bursts -- so far this work has shown that being wrong is sometimes more interesting than being right," Dr Hancock said.

Telescope facilities such as the Australia Telescope Compact Array in northern New South Wales and the Karl Jansky Very Large Array in the US both have observing programs to search for gamma-ray burst afterglows and have been recently upgraded to increase their sensitivity.

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Researchers grow liquid crystal 'flowers' that can be used as lenses

In their earlier studies, the team produced patterns of "defects," useful disruptions in the repeating patterns found in liquid crystals, in nanoscale grids and rings. The new study adds a more complex pattern out of an even simpler template: a three-dimensional array in the shape of a flower.

And because the petals of this "flower" are made of transparent liquid crystal and radiate out in a circle from a central point, the ensemble resembles a compound eye and can thus be used as a lens.

The team consists of Randall Kamien, professor in the School of Arts and Sciences' Department of Physics and Astronomy; Kathleen Stebe, the School of Engineering and Applied Science's deputy dean for research and professor in Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Shu Yang, professor in Engineering's departments of Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. Members of their labs also contributed to the new study, including lead author Daniel Beller, Mohamed Gharbi and Apiradee Honglawan.

Their work was published in Physical Review X.

The researchers' ongoing work with liquid crystals is an example of a growing field of nanotechnology known as "directed assembly," in which scientists and engineers aim to manufacture structures on the smallest scales without having to individually manipulate each component. Rather, they set out precisely defined starting conditions and let the physics and chemistry that govern those components do the rest.

The starting conditions in the researchers previous experiments were templates consisting of tiny posts. In one of their studies, they showed that changing the size, shape or spacing of these posts would result in corresponding changes in the patterns of defects on the surface of the liquid crystal resting on top of them. In another experiment, they showed they could make a "hula hoop" of defects around individual posts, which would then act as a second template for a ring of defects at the surface.

In their latest work, the researchers used a much simpler cue.

"Before we were growing these liquid crystals on something like a trellis, a template with precisely ordered features," Kamien said. "Here, we're just planting a seed."

The seed, in this case, were silica beads -- essentially, polished grains of sand. Planted at the top of a pool of liquid crystal flower-like patterns of defects grow around each bead.

The key difference between the template in this experiment and ones in the research team's earlier work was the shape of the interface between the template and the liquid crystal.

In their experiment that generated grid patterns of defects, those patterns stemmed from cues generated by the templates' microposts. Domains of elastic energy originated on the flat tops and edges of these posts and travelled up the liquid crystal's layers, culminating in defects. Using a bead instead of a post, as the researchers did in their latest experiment, makes it so that the interface is no longer flat.

"Not only is the interface at an angle, it's an angle that keeps changing," Kamien said. "The way the liquid crystal responds to that is that it makes these petal-like shapes at smaller and smaller sizes, trying to match the angle of the bead until everything is flat."

Surface tension on the bead also makes it so these petals are arranged in a tiered, convex fashion. And because the liquid crystal can interact with light, the entire assembly can function as a lens, focusing light to a point underneath the bead.

"It's like an insect's compound eye, or the mirrors on the biggest telescopes," said Kamien. "As we learn more about these systems, we're going to be able to make these kinds of lenses to order and use them to direct light."

This type of directed assembly could be useful in making optical switches and in other applications.

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Why it snows so much in the frozen north

Dec. 20, 2013 — When it doesn't show signs of stopping, most of us just mumble a few choice words and get out the snow shovel. Scientists, however, wonder where all that snow is coming from, particularly in pristine places like the Arctic. Raymond Shaw and his colleagues may have found an answer.

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Here's the conundrum: Snow doesn't just materialize out of thin air. For those delicate, six-sided crystals of ice to form, they need a nucleus, a speck of dust, where water molecules can cling and order their structure as they freeze. Those ice-forming nuclei are relatively rare. Yet, over the Arctic, where the atmosphere is very clean and the ocean is covered with ice, sometimes it snows interminably. With bazillions of snowflakes crystalizing over dust specks and falling to Earth, why don't the clouds run out of nuclei? And why doesn't it quit snowing?

The same question applies to a lesser degree in places like Lake Superior, whose soggy clouds drop countless megatons of snow on the hapless residents of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan.

"Within a few hours, you basically purge the atmosphere of all those particles," said Shaw, a physicist at Michigan Technological University. "So how can it snow for days on end?"

To answer the question, Shaw and his colleagues, including graduate student Fan Yang, set about developing a model to describe how ice crystals form, grow and fall, and they backed it up using data on arctic clouds, which are very well studied. They hoped that by characterizing just how snow comes into being, they would uncover clues to the puzzle.

What they discovered surprised them. As the number of snow crystals increases, their mass soars by a power of 2.5. "Our first guess would have been that if you triple the number of crystals, you triple the mass," said Shaw. "It turns out to be a much stronger relationship than that." For example, if you triple the number of crystals, the mass goes up by a factor of 16. Simply put, the more crystals you have, the bigger they are.

Their model hinges on the idea that ice crystals are forming on atmospheric particles that were previously thought to be useless for making ice crystals. "The key assumption we made was that there's a hidden source of ice nuclei that's always there, but they are just really, really low efficiency," said Shaw. "The consensus in the research community has been that you need special pieces of dust to catalyze the ice. We thought, 'What if there was more stuff out there that would produce ice if you just wait long enough? Maybe when you put it in contact with a drop of water, it doesn't freeze immediately. But if you wait an hour, or two hours, it does. Our model assumes that the atmosphere is full of those really inefficient nuclei."

Those inefficient nuclei are behind those big crystals that show up during heavy snowfalls.

"The mass of an ice crystal is related to its growth time," Shaw said. "The longer it's in the cloud, the bigger it will be." So, when there's an updraft that keeps crystals from falling, snowflakes that form on regular, snow-forming particles get larger and larger. During that time, many more snowflakes have a chance to form on weak nuclei.

Eventually, all the snow crystals get too heavy for the updraft to support, and they tumble earthward. By then, they are huge, and there are lots of them. Not only is that born out in Shaw's model, it also appears to fit with data gathered from arctic clouds.

They don't know what those weak nuclei are, or where they come from. But the scientists on Shaw's team are confident enough in their existence that they are looking for them in lab experiments.

"By assuming they are there, we got this mathematical prediction that fits with the experimental data," said Shaw. "So there's indirect evidence that these inefficient nuclei are there. This could be a solution to the mystery."

The study was funded by the US Department of Energy. An article describing their work, "A Minimalist Approach to Modeling Complex Arctic Clouds," coauthored by Shaw, Yang and Mikhail Ovchinnikov, a research scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, was published in the July 2013 edition of Geophysical Research Letters.

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Starless cloud cores reveal why some stars are bigger than others

To find the answer, astronomers used the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) telescope to survey the cores of some of the darkest, coldest, and densest clouds in our Galaxy to search for the telltale signs of star formation.

These objects, known as Infrared Dark Clouds, were observed approximately 10,000 light-years away in the direction of the constellations of Aquila and Scutum.

Since these cloud cores are so massive and dense, gravity should have already overwhelmed their supporting gas pressure, allowing them to collapse to form new, Sun-mass stars. If a star had not yet begun to shine, that would be a hint that something extra was supporting the cloud.

"A starless core would indicate that some force was balancing out the pull of gravity, regulating star formation, and allowing vast amounts of material to accumulate in a scaled-up version of the way our own Sun formed," remarked Jonathan Tan, an astrophysicist at the University of Florida, Gainesville, and lead author of a paper published today in the Astrophysical Journal. "This suggests that massive stars and Sun-like stars follow a universal mechanism for star formation. The only difference is the size of their parent clouds."

Average stars like our Sun begin life as dense, but relatively low-mass concentrations of hydrogen, helium, and other trace elements inside large molecular clouds. After the initial kernel emerges from the surrounding gas, material collapses under gravity into the central region in a relatively ordered fashion via a swirling accretion disk, where eventually planets can form. After enough mass accumulates, nuclear fusion begins at the core and a star is born.

While this model of star formation can account for the vast majority of stars in our Milky Way, something extra is needed to explain the formation of more massive stars. "Some additional force is needed to balance out the normal process of collapse, otherwise our Galaxy would have a fairly uniform stellar population," said Tan. "Alternatively, there has been speculation that two separate models of star formation are needed: one for Sun-like stars and one for these massive stars."

The key to teasing out the answer is to find examples of massive starless cores -- to witness the very beginnings of massive star birth.

The team of astronomers from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Italy used ALMA to look inside these cores for a unique chemical signature involving the isotope deuterium to essentially take the temperatures of these clouds to see if stars had formed. Deuterium is important because it tends to bond with certain molecules in cold conditions. Once stars turn on and heat the surrounding gas, the deuterium is quickly lost and replaced with the more common isotope of hydrogen.

The ALMA observations detected copious amounts of deuterium, suggesting that the cloud is cold and starless. This would indicate that some counter force is forestalling core collapse and buying enough time to form a massive star. The researchers speculate that strong magnetic fields may be propping up the cloud, preventing it from collapsing quickly.

"These new ALMA observations reveal objects that are quite similar to the nurseries of Sun-like stars, but simply scaled-up by tens or a hundred times. This may mean that nature is more important than nurture when it comes to determining a star's size," concludes Tan.

These observations were conducted during ALMA's early science campaign. Future studies with ALMA's full array of 66 antennas will uncover even more details about these star-forming regions.

ALMA, an international astronomy facility, is a partnership of Europe, North America and East Asia in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. ALMA construction and operations are led on behalf of Europe by ESO, on behalf of North America by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), and on behalf of East Asia by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The Joint ALMA Observatory (JAO) provides the unified leadership and management of the construction, commissioning and operation of ALMA.

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

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Business Solar looking sunny

2013/12/20

The solar industry is an artefact of government – driven exclusively by government subsidies like feed-in tariffs, tax credits and tender schemes.

Recently, these subsidies have been scaled back as PV installations have grown rapidly, because lower system cost has made the original schemes very attractive and also costly to support for 20 years or more.

But, reports IHS, the solar industry is back in business.

“After two years of a punishing downturn, the global solar industry is on the rebound,” says IHS’ Ash Sharma, “worldwide PV installations are set to rise by double digits in 2014, solar manufacturing capital spending is recovering, module prices are stabilizing and emerging markets are on the rise. However, challenges remain, including changes in government incentives and policy, an on-going backlash to the rapid rise of renewables and razor-thin margins throughout the solar value chain.”

IHS believes that global installations will be in the range of 40 to 45GW in 2014, and that demand for PV energy storage systems (PVESS) will quadruple. Worldwide installations of PVESS in 2014 will amount to 753 megawatts (MW), up from 192 MW in 2013. Strong growth will be generated by all three major segments of the market—i.e., residential, commercial and utility-scale PVESS. The largest growth will be in the commercial sector, driven by demand for intelligent electricity-consumption systems in buildings.

Persistent manufacturing overcapacity for PV modules will result in a 10% decline in ASPs in 2014, prohibiting any further increase in profit margins for suppliers during the year.

IHS predicts global capital spending in 2014 by producers of PV ingots, wafers, cells, modules and polysilicon will rise by 42% to reach $3.3 billion.

With demand shifting away from the developed solar regions of the United States, the European Union and China, PV manufacturers are gaining interest in running operations in emerging markets, a phenomenon expected to result in new factory openings and boosting local capital spending in areas such as the Middle East, South America and parts of Africa.

In 2014 Latin America will see installations ip soar to 1.4 GW in 2014, up from 300 MW in 2013. The majority of additions will take place in Chile and Mexico, countries without any conventional subsidies for PV.

In mid-2013, net-energy metering (NEM) became one of the most contentious issues in the U.S. solar PV industry. However, while states including Arizona, Colorado and California are re-evaluating their NEM policies, the impact of any potential changes on the U.S. distributed PV industry is expected to be negligible in 2014.

The rise of solar markets in Japan and China is spurring the rapid growth of the PV inverter business in those countries, boosting market share for domestic suppliers in 2013. Four of the world’s Top 10 inverter suppliers during the first nine months of 2013 were from China or Japan when ranked on a revenue basis, up from two in 2012. As Chinese and Japanese suppliers start to expand their international presence, IHS predicts that those that survive the intense competition will be well-placed to increase their global market share.

In November, China’s National Energy Administration (NEA)—a subsidiary of the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)—announced huge plans for 12 GW of PV projects in 2014. These consist of 8 GW of distributed PV and 4 GW of ground-mount systems. While the announcement is hugely encouraging for both the Chinese and global PV industry, IHS firmly believes that such an ambitious target for distributed PV installations is not achievable, and the reality is that actual totals will fall far short of this goal.

IHS believes that cost and price of PV modules will decline by more than 40 percent in 2020 compared to 2013.

High electricity prices and the falling cost of PV will allow 700 MW of unsubsidized PV to be developed worldwide in 2014, especially in regions with high irradiation and intense electricity demand.

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Business Microservers booming

2013/12/20

Microserver sales will climb 139% in 2014 to $580 million from an estimated $243 million in 2013, says IC Insights.

Between 2012 and 2017, microserver sales are projected to rise by a CAGR of nearly 72% to $1.2 billion.

High-density microservers contain many CPUs and emphasise power efficiency for massive amounts of lightweight-computing tasks, such as delivering thousands of web pages to users of smartphones and other mobile systems.

New microserver systems are also being aimed at a wider range of data centre applications and new cloud-computing services. This computer segment has become a major battleground between Intel and about a half-dozen processor suppliers developing new 64-bit MPUs with ARM CPU cores for server systems.

However the market for server chips declined this year and last but will grow 3% next year and 1% CAGR between 2012 and 2017. Next year it will be worth $14.4 billion; in 2017 it will be worth $15 billion.

Price erosion and the weak global economy have lowered overall server sales volumes in the past two years, but next year they should grow 3% to $54.6 billion, followed by stronger growth in 2015 and 2016.

Server sales are forecast to rise by a CAGR of just 1.5% between 2012 and 2017.

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Business Calxeda reported to be out of business

2013/12/20

A blow to ARM’s plans in the server space is this morning’s news that Calxeda has shut down.

Calxeda developed ARM- based ICs for servers. The company is said to have raised $90million in three funding rounds but, when it went for a fourth round, it failed.

Investors include: Austin Ventures, Vulcan Capital, ARM Holdings and Highland Capital and Advanced Technology Investment Company.

The speculation is that HP and Dell, which are planning ARM-based microservers, May pick up the IP.

The company employs z125 people.

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General, Power Protocol combines Bluetooth and mat-less wireless charging

2013/12/20

Nordic Semiconductor has introduced a wireless charging software development kit (SDK) for wireless charging applications based on the Rezence standard, developed and maintained by the Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP).

The Rezence specification is based on the principles of magnetic resonance, and as such does not require the accessories to be placed on a “charging mat”.

Bluetooth Smart is used for charging management functions for Rezence applications.

“The ability to wirelessly charge our personal electronic products with spatial freedom is clearly very attractive and will become even more so as wearable products we use every day become more commonplace,” said Geir Langeland, Nordic Semiconductor’s Director of sales and marketing.

The S120 is an 8-link protocol stack for the Bluetooth low energy nRF51822 System-on-Chip (SoC). The nRF51 Wireless Charging SDK includes services/profiles for a Rezence Power Transmitting Unit (PTU) and Power Receiving Unit (PRU) as well as state machine examples.

It provides Out-of-Band (OOB) signaling part of a Rezence charge pad. With the support for 8-link concurrent link, a Charge pad based on nRF51822 / S120 can support simultaneous charging of up to eight devices.

The existing S110 peripheral role Bluetooth low energy SoftDevice combined with the SDK provides the same solution for a Rezence rechargeable device.

The S120 SoftDevice includes all Bluetooth low energy protocol layers up to and including GATT/GAP. It supports multi-link central and observer roles, GATT server and client, and event driven, asynchronous and thread safe GATT/GAP and L2CAP Application Programming Interfaces (API).

S120′s ability to support 8 simultaneous links makes it an ideal choice for Bluetooth low energy hubs that are not smartphones or tablets.

The S120 is delivered as a SoftDevice for Nordic`s nRF51 Series ICs and as such it is a pre-compiled binary with no link time dependencies to application code, conveniently available as a download for customer use.

The S120 and an updated nRF51 SDK is available as a download for existing customers of nRF51822. A Bluetooth v4.1 qualified production builds of S120 will be available Q1 2014.

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TB bacteria mask their identity to intrude into deeper regions of lungs

Details on this finding are reported Dec. 16 in the advanced online edition of the journal Nature. The research was a collaboration between the University of Washington and the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute.

Dr. Lalita Ramakrishan, who studies how TB evades the body's immune system and manipulates the body's defenses for its own ends, is the senior author. She is a UW professor of microbiology, medicine and immunology. The lead author is C.J. Cambier of the UW Department of Immunology.

Ramakrishnan noted that the recent study also suggests an explanation for the longstanding observation that tuberculosis infections begin in the comparatively sterile lower lungs. In the upper respiratory tract, resident microbes and inhaled microbes of a variety of species signal their presence.

These tip-offs alert and attract many infection-fighting cells to the upper airways. The presence of other microbes in the upper airway may thereby help to keep TB infections at bay by creating a hostile environment.

Their presence may explain why TB is a less contagious disease than those caused by several other respiratory pathogens.

To cause disease, TB bacteria must sneak through this well-patrolled area and head for parts of the lungs where fewer microbiocidal cells are policing.

Almost like intruders wearing a stocking over their faces to keep surveillance cameras from clearly recording their features, the TB pathogens produce particular types of fatty substances, or lipids, on their cell surfaces.

These lipids, abbreviated as PDIM, are already known to be associated with bacterial virulence. The researchers showed that PDIM lipids function by masking the underlying molecular patterns that would reveal their dangerous nature to macrophages, a first-line defense of infection-fighting cells.

At the same time, a related lipid -- called PGL -- on the bacterium's cell surface promotes the recruitment of cells described as permissive macrophages. These clean-up cells engulf but don't kill the TB pathogens. Instead, they take them across the lung lining, deep into the lung tissue where the bacteria can establish an infection.

According to the researchers on this study, these mechanisms appear to allow certain TB pathogens to avoid detection by the pattern recognition receptors that enable some infection-fighting cells to spot a variety of different disease microbes through the pathogen-associated molecular patterns on or near their cell surface.

Like most other bacteria, TB pathogens have many of these telltale molecular patterns that should activate an immune response. However, TB pathogens have evolved mechanisms to circumvent tripping the alarm, in this case by physically masking the otherwise detectable pattern. This cover-up allows them to infect the airway initially by avoiding the infection-fighting cell populations that are detrimental to their survival, the researchers noted.

The TB pathogens then use the other lipid molecule, PGL, to co-opt a host chemical pathway that triggers the recruitment of the permissive macrophages.

The present study expands on earlier work in the Ramakrishan and collaborative labs, which helped describe the strategies by which TB pathogens manipulate host pathways for their own purposes after they enter certain host cells.

These include the secretion of proteins that help expand the niche for TB by recruiting macrophages to the early lung tubercles characteristic of the disease. The present study describes earlier stages in infection, when the pathogens first come in contact with their potential host at the surface of the lining of the lung.

"The current study suggests the manner in which the TB pathogens manipulate recruitment of the first responding macrophages to gain access to their preferred niche," the researchers noted.

"The choreographed entry involves two related TB cell lipids acting in concert to avoid one host pathway while inducing another," they wrote. The findings link the previously known, absolutely essential virulence factor on the surface of TB cells, PDIM, to the evasion of immune cell detection. They also might explain why a certain pathogen molecular pattern recognition system is dispensable in protecting against TB. On the other hand, PGL is not required on the surface of TB cells for them to infect the body.

Ramakrishnan noted that globally, a lot of samples of TB taken from infected patients do not have PGL. "However," she and her research team noted, "the importance of PGL in mediating TB virulence or transmission is underscored by its presence in many of the W-Beijing strains" of TB which are starting to rapidly appear in more patient samples, and which have predominated in outbreaks in North America.

Ramakrishnan explains that their findings suggest how PGL may play an important role in increasing TB's infectivity.

"The presence of PGL in ancestral strains of TB suggest it played an integral role in the evolution of TB infectivity," the researchers noted. "TB is an ancient disease and the enhanced infectivity conferred by PGL may have been essential for most of its history before human crowding, with its increased opportunity for transmission, made it dispensable."

The study findings, and previous work on TB, might also explain why smaller droplets of TB are more infectious than larger ones. Only the smaller droplets can make their way down into the lower airways. On the flip side, all it takes is 3 or fewer TB mycobacteria with PGL-producing ability to enter the lower lungs and start an infection.

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2013年12月20日星期五

Analogue / Linear / Mixed Signal ICs Rohm op amps operate full-swing on 1.7V

2013/12/20

Rohm has developed a range of op amps for use in motion sensor applications such as accelerometers (shock) and angular velocity detection.

The devices are used to amplify the small signals generated by sensors and the BD5291G and BD5291FVE op amps have input/output full-swing operation at only 1.7V.

The op amps derive their signal accuracy because the offset voltage generated at the differential input stage is reduced significantly, resulting in a high common-mode rejection ratio (70dB min).

As a result it is possible to amplify small signals, such as those from MEMS accelerometers and sensors with greater accuracy.

This also makes them suitable for microphone amps, active filters, buffer amps and amplification circuits.

ROHM “Unlike conventional input/output full-swing opamps that operate from 1.8V, these products support 1.7V operation, providing sufficient margin against supply voltage fluctuations,” said the supplier.

Common-mode rejection ratio is 70dB (min), making it possible to provide high-accuracy signal amplification. (CMRR is calculated by dividing the common-mode signal variation with the output voltage variation, with 45dB and 70dB roughly equivalent to 178x and 3,162x, respectively.)

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