星空女人频道: 2013-09-22

2013年9月28日星期六

Mucus useful in treating IBD, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease

Sep. 26, 2013 — Imagine mucus -- which most people find unpleasant -- actually helping your body maintain its equilibrium, prevent inflammation, and reduce food allergy problems.

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Researchers from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai's Immunology Institute foresee a day when mucus could be manufactured and given to sick people to help them fight inflammation and increase immunity. For the first time ever, they report that mucus in the large intestine provides a valuable anti-inflammatory and self-regulating immune function. In fact, they propose that mucus may one day prove valuable in treating gut diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Crohn's disease, as well as cancer.

The research is published online September 26 in the peer-reviewed journal Science.

"We asked ourselves whether dendritic cells in the gut could capture mucus, as well as bacteria and food antigens," said Andrea Cerutti, MD, PhD, the study's senior author and Professor in the Department of Medicine at the Immunology Institute at the Icahn School of Medicine. Dendritic cells are a type of immune cell found in the mucosa that launch an immune response. "We found that whenever mucus was present, it was stimulating the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines [regulatory proteins released by the cells of the immune system that act to regulate an immune response]," he added. The mucus prevented bacteria from inducing a damaging immune response.

Put another way, intestinal mucus not only acted as a barrier against bacteria and dietary toxins, but also stopped the onset of inflammatory reactions against these agents. "This important property of mucus was unknown until now," said Meimei Shan, MD, PhD, the study's lead author, and Assistant Professor in the Department of Medicine at the Immunology Institute at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

In this research, mucus was isolated and analyzed from the intestine of healthy mice, from pigs, and from a human intestinal cell line. A number of techniques involving cellular immunology and molecular biology were used to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory properties of mucus. In addition, genetically engineered mice lacking intestinal mucus and mice with colitis were given mucus from healthy mice.

Under normal conditions, people release about one liter of mucus every single day. Mucus is normally secreted by mucosal tissues throughout the body, according to the researchers. The large intestine carries 80 percent of the body's immune cells. In inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders, such as Crohn's disease and inflammatory bowel disease, people may have alterations of intestinal mucus that impede the generation of a protective anti-inflammatory response.

"Future research will focus on further exploring the mechanisms to synthesize gut mucus or an equivalent drug-like compound for oral administration," said Dr. Shan. "We hope to artificially synthesize mucus or an equivalent compound for oral use."

Besides helping to treat inflammatory gut diseases, the researchers see ramifications in treating cancer. Dr. Cerutti explained: "Several aggressive tumors, such as colon, ovarian, and breast cancers produce mucous, including MUC2. Mucus produced by malignant cells may prevent protective immune responses against the malignant cells." As researchers gain a better understanding of the properties of mucus, it could also have a positive effect in treating tumors.

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New gut bacterium discovered in termite's digestion of wood

"In the termite gut, you have several hundred different species of microbes that live within a millimeter of one another. We know certain microbes are present in the gut, and we know microbes are responsible for certain functions, but until now, we didn't have a good way of knowing which microbes are doing what," says Jared Leadbetter, professor of environmental microbiology at Caltech, in whose laboratory much of the research was performed. He is also an author of a paper about the work published the week of September 16 in the online issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

Acetogenesis is the production of acetate (a source of nutrition for termites) from the carbon dioxide and hydrogen generated by gut protozoa as they break down decaying wood. In their study of "who is doing what and where," Leadbetter and his colleagues searched the entire pool of termite gut microbes to identify specific genes from organisms responsible for acetogenesis.

The researchers began by sifting through the microbes' RNA -- genetic information that can provide a snapshot of the genes active at a certain point in time. Using RNA from the total pool of termite gut microbes, they searched for actively transcribed formate dehydrogenase (FDH) genes, known to encode a protein necessary for acetogenesis. Next, using a method called multiplex microfluidic digital polymerase chain reaction (digital PCR), the researchers sequestered the previously unstudied individual microbes into tiny compartments to identify the actual microbial species carrying each of the FDH genes. Some of the FDH genes were found in types of bacteria known as spirochetes -- a previously predicted source of acetogenesis. Yet it appeared that these spirochetes alone could not account for all of the acetate produced in the termite gut.

Initially, the Caltech researchers were unable to identify the microorganism expressing the single most active FDH gene in the gut. However, the first authors on the study, Adam Rosenthal, a postdoctoral scholar in biology at Caltech, and Xinning Zhang (PhD '10, Environmental Science and Engineering), noticed that this gene was more abundant in the portion of the gut extract containing wood chunks and larger microbes, like protozoans. After analyzing the chunkier gut extract, they discovered that the single most active FDH gene was encoded by a previously unstudied species from a group of microbes known as the deltaproteobacteria. This was the first evidence that a substantial amount of acetate in the gut may be produced by a non-spirochete.

Because the genes from this deltaproteobacterium were found in the chunky particulate matter of the termite gut, the researchers thought that perhaps the newly identified microbe attaches to the surface of one of the chunks. To test this hypothesis, the researchers used a color-coded visualization method called hybridization chain reaction-fluorescent in situ hybridization, or HCR-FISH.

The technique -- developed in the laboratory of Niles Pierce, professor of applied and computational mathematics and bioengineering at Caltech, and a coauthor on the PNAS study -- allowed the researchers to simultaneously "paint" cells expressing both the active FDH gene and a gene identifying the deltoproteobacterium with different fluorescent colors simultaneously. "The microfluidics experiment suggested that the two colors should be expressed in the same location and in the same tiny cell," Leadbetter says. And, indeed, they were. "Through this approach, we were able to actually see where the new deltaproteobacterium resided. As it turns out, the cells live on the surface of a very particular hydrogen-producing protozoan."

This association between the two organisms makes sense based on what is known about the complex food web of the termite gut, Leadbetter says. "Here you have a large eukaryotic single cell -- a protozoan -- which is making hydrogen as it degrades wood, and you have these much smaller hydrogen-consuming deltaproteobacteria attached to its surface," he says. "So, this new acetogenic bacterium is snuggled up to its source of hydrogen just as close as it can get."

This intimate relationship, Leadbetter says, might never have been discovered relying on phylogenetic inference -- the standard method for matching a function to a specific organism. "Using phylogenetic inference, we say, 'We know a lot about this hypothetical organism's relatives, so without ever seeing the organism, we're going to make guesses about who it is related to," he says. "But with the techniques in this study, we found that our initial prediction was wrong. Importantly, we have been able to determine the specific organism responsible and a location of the mystery organism, both of which appear to be extremely important in the consumption of hydrogen and turning it into a product the insect can use." These results not only identify a new source for acetogenesis in the termite gut -- they also reveal the limitations of making predictions based exclusively on phylogenetic relationships.

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Professor develops 'brain' for robots

The research, developed by Dr. Jagannathan Sarangapani, makes use of current formation moving robots and introduces a fault-tolerant control design to improve the probability of completing a set task. Currently there is a lot of potential growth in this field, as very few robotic systems have this redundancy because of costs.

The new feedback system, funded in part by the National Science Foundation, will allow a "follower" robot to take over as the "leader" robot if the original leader has a system or mechanical failure. In a leader/follower formation, the lead robot is controlled through a nonholonomic system, meaning that the trajectory is set in advance, and the followers are tracing the same pattern that the leader takes by using sonar.

When a problem occurs and roles need to change to continue, the fault tolerant control system comes into use. It uses reinforcement learning and active critique, both inspired by behaviorist psychology to show how machines act in environments to maximize work rate, to help the new, unmanned robot to estimate its new course. Without this, the follower wouldn't have a path to follow and the task would fail.

"Imagine you have one operator in an office controlling 10 bulldozers remotely," says Sarangapani, the William A. Rutledge -- Emerson Electric Co. Distinguished Professor in Electrical Engineering at S&T. "In the event that the lead one suffers a mechanical problem, this hardware allows the work to continue."

The innovative research can be applied to robotic security surveillance, mining and even aerial maneuvering. With the growing number of sinkholes appearing across the country, surveying them in a safe and efficient way is now possible with a remotely controlled machine that can also survive the terrain.

Sarangapani believes that the research is most important for aerial vehicles. When a helicopter is in flight, faults can now be detected and accommodated. This means that instead of a catastrophic failure resulting in a potentially fatal crash, the system can allow for a better chance for an emergency landing instead. The fault tolerance would notice a problem and essentially shut down that malfunctioning part while maintaining slight control of the overall vehicle.

"The end goal is to push robotics to the next level," says Sarangapani. "I want robots to think for themselves, to learn, adapt and use active critique to work unsupervised. A self-aware robot will eventually be here, it is just a matter of time."

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Human robot getting closer: iCub robot must learn from its experiences

Sep. 27, 2013 — A robot that feels, sees and, in particular, thinks and learns like us. It still seems like science fiction, but if it's up to University of Twente (UT) researcher Frank van der Velde, it won't be. In his work he wants to implement the cognitive process of the human brain in robots. The research should lead to the arrival of the latest version of the iCub robot in Twente. This human robot (humanoid) blurs the boundaries between robot and human.

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Decades of scientific research into cognitive psychology and the brain have given us knowledge about language, memory, motor skills and perception. We can now use that knowledge in robots, but Frank van der Velde's research goes even further. "The application of cognition in technical systems should also mean that the robot learns from its experiences and the actions it performs. A simple example: a robot that spills too much when pouring a cup of coffee can then learn how it should be done."

Possible first iCub in the Netherlands

The arrival of the iCub robot at the University of Twente should signify the next step in this research. Van der Velde submitted an application together with other UT researchers Stefano Stramigioli, Vanessa Evers, Dirk Heylen and Richard van Wezel, all active in the robotics and cognitive research. At the moment, twenty European laboratories have an iCub, which was developed in Italy (thanks to a European FP7 grant for the IIT). The Netherlands is still missing from the list. Moreover, a newer version is currently being developed, with for example haptic sensors. In February it will be announced whether the robotics club will actually bring the latest iCub to the UT. The robot costs a quarter of a million Euros and NWO (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research) will reimburse 75% of the costs. Then the TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) and the universities of Groningen, Nijmegen, Delft and Eindhoven can also make use of it. Within the UT, the iCub can be deployed in different laboratories thanks to a special transport system.

Robot guide dog

The possibilities are endless, according to Van der Velde. "The new iCub has a skin and fingers that have a much better sense of touch and can feel strength. That makes interaction with humans much more natural. We want to ensure that this robot continues to learn and understands how people function. This research ensures, for example, that robots actually gather knowledge by focusing on certain objects or persons. In areas of application like healthcare and nursing, such robots can play an important role. A good example would be that in ten years' time you see a blind person walking with a robot guide dog."

Nano-neural circuits

A recent line of research that is in line with this profile is the development of electronic circuits that resemble a web of neurons in the human brain. Contacts have already been made to start this research in Twente. In the iCub robot, this can for example be used for the robot's visual perception. This requires a lot of relatively simple operations that must all be performed in parallel. This takes a lot of time and energy in the current systems. With electronic circuits in the form of a web of nerve cells this is much easier.

"These connections are only possible at the nanoscale, that is to say the scale at which the material is only a few atoms thick. In combination with the iCub robot, it can be investigated how the experiences of the robot are recorded in such materials and how the robot is controlled by nano-neural circuitry. The bottleneck of the existing technical systems is often the energy consumption and the size. The limits of Moore's Law, the proposition that the number of transistors in a circuit doubles every two years through technological advances, are reached. In this area we are therefore also on the verge of many new applications."

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Business The UKs spectrum conundrum

2013/09/27

Simon-Saunders Professor Simon Saunders of Real Wireless will chair the the working group on Spectrum Applications and Demand within the UK Spectrum Forum set up by Ed Vaizey, UK Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries.

The Forum is to consider the relationship between TV and cellular, the needs of government, military and emergency services, developments in Internet of Things (IoT) and 5G mobile devices amongst others.

Real Wireless forecasts a need for extra allocations of 200-300 MHz of licensed spectrum for mobile applications and 350 MHz of spectrum for Wi-Fi applications by 2020 to meet even a median forecast of growing demand.

This has to be achieved without compromising on the needs of other sectors such as transportation, emergency service and many others.

“We have seen from the difficulties of digital switchover or the debate on the balance of licensed and licence-exempt spectrum that these decisions are not easy, and as we consider the demands of emergency services and military then they become even harder,” says Saunders, “yet if the UK is to progress with 5G or to seize the opportunities presented by M2M and IoT then the need for a spectrum strategy that reconciles these different desires is critical.”

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A step up in wavelength to reduce size of short-distance communication systems

Millimeter waves are a type of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 0.1 and 10 millimeters long. Because they are susceptible to absorption by water in the atmosphere, they travel short distances only. Despite this limitation, their short wavelength makes them a useful technology for small-distance applications. Examples include short-range, secure wireless communication and automotive-radar technology, which lets self-driving cars sense their environment.

Electronic components that can manipulate millimeter waves are vital for realizing this potential in commercial applications. Specifically, it is important to change the wavelength of such waves from, for example, one that is optimal for sending information across short distances to one that is more easily processed electronically.

Rui Li and co‐workers at the A*STAR Institute of Microelectronics, Singapore, have designed and fabricated an electronic module that can convert a millimeter wave from one wavelength to another. The device, called a subharmonic passive mixer, mixes an incoming millimeter wave that has a wavelength of 2.2 millimeters with a local source of 4.3-millimeter waves to generate a 1.1-millimeter signal. A signal of this wavelength means that the device operates at a frequency of 273 gigahertz; that is, 273 billion oscillations per second. Operation at such a high frequency allows a large number of potential transmission channels.

Importantly, the researchers' device is based on a technology called 'system-on-package', where the components are attached to a package. "It is the first time that [an on-package] converter has operated at such a high frequency," says Li. In contrast, conventional electronic devices, such as laptops and phones, are miniaturized by combining hundreds of electrical devices on a silicon chip. This approach becomes problematic when dealing with electronic components that operate at radiofrequencies. The low electrical resistivity of silicon results in an energy loss that degrades the overall system performance. The manufacturing cost is also high because the components occupy a large area.

The device developed by Li and her co-workers comprised three stacked thin films of metal, and the choice of material to separate these layers was crucial to it's efficient operation. The researchers used benzocyclobutene -- a polymer that, unlike silicon, is known to have good electrical performance, even in the millimeter-wave region. Thorough electrical testing confirmed the high-performance of their design.

"We are currently in the process of designing and implementing numerous similar types of millimeter-wave passive components in various types of package," says Li. "We hope this will reduce the chip area as compared to 'on-chip'-based approaches."

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Laser treatments yield smoother metal surfaces

Sep. 26, 2013 — Ever since the Bronze Age, metals have been cast in different shapes for different applications. Smooth surfaces that are resistant to corrosion are crucial for many of the present-day uses of cast metals, ranging from bio-implants to automotive parts. Yingchun Guan, from the A*STAR Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech) and her co-workers have shown how different laser-processing methods improve metal surfaces and protect them against corrosion.

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Laser processing involves scanning a high-intensity laser beam multiple times across the surface of a metal. Each scan by the laser beam 'writes' a track in the surface, which partially melts the metal. Consecutive tracks can overlap -- the degree to which affects how well the melting caused by these tracks will smooth the surface of the metal. The scanning speed can also affect the surface melt.

Guan and co-workers investigated how different degrees of overlap between the tracks affect the surface properties of AZ91D -- a common magnesium alloy. "AZ91D is the most widely used magnesium alloy for the production of high-volume components for the automotive, electronics and telecommunications industries," Guan explains.

By examining cross-sections of AZ91D samples post-melt, the researchers found that the greater the degree of overlap between the tracks, the fewer the number of small cracks that developed during solidification (see image). According to Guan, this finding should be considered when processing metals destined for exposure to fluids, such as those that will be used in bio-implants.

The researchers also detected alterations in the alloy's composition through changes in the degree of laser-track overlap. Melted magnesium evaporates more readily than aluminum, and as the degree of laser-track overlap increased, it changed the composition of the alloy -- particularly in the larger areas of melt. Theoretical calculations by Guan and her co-workers described these kinetics accurately.

According to the team's model, a greater level of overlap provided a greater amount of heat, which improved the convection of the metals within the molten liquid and yielded a more homogeneous surface. Electrochemical tests by the team also confirmed that the more homogeneous the surface of a material, the more resistant it was to corrosion.

The team's approach, particularly the theoretical model, is applicable to assess laser processing of other alloys and compounds, Guan notes. As the surface structures affect not only the mechanical and chemical properties but also the electronic, thermal and optical parameters, these findings will be of relevance to metals used in a variety of applications.

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2013年9月27日星期五

Power 10W charger chip from Dialog/iWatt

2013/09/27

Dialog Semiconductor has introduced a 10W ac-dc power controller that can use an npn bipolar transistor (BJT) – a transitor option first pioneered by CamSemi – instead of needing a mosfet.

“The use of BJTs is prevalent in 5W and lower power supplies,” said Dialog v-p Ron Edgerton. “We are bringing this to higher power applications.”

Called iW1679 (Dialog bought iWatt recently) the chip is a pulse width modulation and pulse frequency modulation (PWM/PFM) controller intended for 5V/2A smartphone adapters and chargers.

Claimed average active efficiency is 83% and no-load stand-by is <30mW.

“This enables designers to meet or exceed emerging global energy standards, including the European CoC version 5, which is anticipated to require 76% active average efficiency and high light load efficiency down to 10% loads, as well as the proposed US DoE regulation, expected to require 79% active average efficiency, and the Energy Star EPS 2.0, which will require 73% active average efficiency,” said the firm.

Base drive requirements for a BTT are more complex than needed at the gate of a mosfet.

Dialog has has proprietary base-drive techniques – which involve switching in and out parallel current sources – to modulate drive.

“This optimises performance and improves efficiency by keeping the BJT out of saturation,” said the firm, adding: “Since BJTs have softer switching compared to FETs, they generate less noise and, therefore, have inherently lower EMI.”

Valley-mode switching is another technique used to cut EMI. “It also includes a proprietary switching mode that results in no audible noise from the controller,” said Dialog.

Four-level cable drop compensation is included, as is protection from output short-circuit, output over-voltage, output over-current, and over-temperature.

The package is an 8-lead SOIC.

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General Nokia may seek wireless tie-up with Alcatel-Lu

2013/09/26

Nokia, shortly to be reduced to an infrastructure company, is pondering a tie-up with Alcatel-Lucent, reports Reuters.

Nokia’s infrastructure business has annual revenues of $18 billion and the company
still has net cash of over €4 billion.

Recently it bought out Siemens’ share of the business.

Alcatel-Lucent has lost an average of $934 million every year since the disastrous takeover of Lucent in 2006.

Recently Qualcomm bought a stake in the company and started a small cell joint development programme with it.

Alcatel-lucent’s new CEO, Michel Combes, is looking for similar i.e. R&D plus minority stake deals.

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Test and Measurement Agilent creates a new and more aggressive test business

2013/09/26

Agilent Technologies test and measurement business is separating from the larger life sciences and chemical analysis system business.

This will create a ‘new’ test system supplier with an established portfolio of test and measurement products, but with a new brand name.

image002_low But what will be different about this new test brand to convince the market that separation from the other half of Agilent Technologies is a positive step?

“The two businesses, the electronic measurement group and the life sciences group, were pulling in different directions from a shareholder point of view,” said Jim Armentrout, European marketing manager for Agilent’s test and measure business.

“The overlap between the two businesses was very small, they operated in different industries and different markets,” said Armentrout.

“Both sets of products are about measurements, but both are measuring very different things,” said Armentrout.

The decision to split the group seems to have been determined in part by the strong growth of the life sciences arm over the last few years.

“The life sciences business has grown into a self-sustaining business,” said Armentrout.

The test and measurement business had sales of $2.9bn in this last financial year. The life sciences and chemical analysis systems business is more profitable and larger with sales of $3.9bn.

“It was apparent that both businesses could stand on their own as independent companies. They have the size and financial stability to do this,” said Armentrout.

“We will not be competing for investment within the group,” said Armentrout.

But it will be a smaller company. Is Armentrouit confident that the new company will have the same level of R&D behind it?

“It is true the R&D activity was shared between the two groups,” said Armentrout. “But effectively the research activity was split internally between the businesses. Now it will be split externally, so there will be no reduction in R&D.”

It is likely that the new Agilent test business, under its new name, will slowly change in character. Part of this could be changes to product strategies.

Armentrout ensures me that nothing will really change. “The new company will have the same product roadmap, the same staff and its own R&D laboratories,” said Armentrout.

“But what will be different is a new focus on electronic measurement as a pure-play test and measurement company,” said Armentrout.

This is the interesting part.

The new business will have to compete in the test market by its own financial and product strategies. There will be no corporate safety net.

My guess is this will make the ‘new Agilent’ more opportunistic in its product plans and more aggressive on price than the ‘old’ company was.

For example, the modular PC-based instrument business will become a new focus for the company.

It entered the market in a big way just three years ago when it launched over 100 instrument modules based on the industry standard PXI platform.

Positioning the modular product strategy has not been easy in a business which makes most of its money from traditional standalone rack and benchtop instruments.

But now there are signs that the new company has found a way to blend the PXI modular and benchtop products together. This is based on common hardware and software which are shared by both PXI and benchtop instruments.

“We will create reference design test systems using a combination of PXI and benchtop instruments running common test applications software,” said Phil Lorch, sales manager for the software and modular product business at Agilent.

The company is also prepared to incorporate PXI modules from other vendors in the system, if necessary.

“It is not about selling a single PXI module anymore, but meeting a specific test application,” said Lorch.

The new approach to the logic analyser product line also gives us a clue that the ‘new’ company will be more flexible and price-aggressive in its product plans.

Logic analysers are a product line which the ‘old’ Agilent was a little undecided about.

“We had a focus on high-end logic analysers, but we neglected mid-range products,” said Yoram Shimoni, market development manager for the Agilent scope and protocol division in EMEA.

Like with PXI, there are signs that this is changing. The company has introduced its first mid-range logic analyser.

The company has identified the sweet spot for logic analysis is FPGA-based designs and it has adjusted the specification of the 16850 analyser to appeal to this application.

It has doubled the sample memory size to 128M samples. It has also developed a software-based probing technology which can be embedded in the netlist of the FPGA.

The new company has also given the new logic analyser a mid-range price tag of around $12k.

For the ‘new’ Agilent the challenge is to shake off the shackles of ‘big company’ culture but protect its most ambitious product plans.

These are early days, but there are first indications this may already be starting to happen.

I imagine Agilent’s test rivals will be watching closely to see if the new company, whatever it is called, will be able to do this.

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