星空女人频道: 2013-12-08

2013年12月14日星期六

Swirls in remnants of Big Bang may hold clues to universe's infancy

Dec. 13, 2013 — South Pole Telescope scientists have detected for the first time a subtle distortion in the oldest light in the universe, which may help reveal secrets about the earliest moments in the universe's formation.

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The scientists observed twisting patterns in the polarization of the cosmic microwave background -- light that last interacted with matter very early in the history of the universe, less than 400,000 years after the big bang. These patterns, known as "B modes," are caused by gravitational lensing, a phenomenon that occurs when the trajectory of light is bent by massive objects, much like a lens focuses light.

A multi-institutional collaboration of researchers led by John Carlstrom, the S. Chandrasekhar Distinguished Service Professor in Astronomy & Astrophysics at the University of Chicago, made the discovery. They announced their findings in a paper published Sept. 30, 2013, in the journal Physical Review Letters -- using the first data from SPTpol, a polarization-sensitive camera installed on the telescope in January 2012.

"The detection of B-mode polarization by South Pole Telescope is a major milestone, a technical achievement that indicates exciting physics to come," Carlstrom said.

The cosmic microwave background is a sea of photons (light particles) left over from the big bang that pervades all of space, at a temperature of minus 270 degrees Celsius -- a mere 3 degrees above absolute zero. Measurements of this ancient light have already given physicists a wealth of knowledge about the properties of the universe. Tiny variations in temperature of the light have been painstakingly mapped across the sky by multiple experiments, and scientists are gleaning even more information from polarized light.

Light is polarized when its electromagnetic waves are preferentially oriented in a particular direction. Light from the cosmic microwave background is polarized mainly due to the scattering of photons off of electrons in the early universe, through the same process by which light is polarized as it reflects off the surface of a lake or the hood of a car. The polarization patterns that result are of a swirl-free type, known as "E modes," which have proven easier to detect than the fainter B modes, and were first measured a decade ago, by a collaboration of researchers using the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, another UChicago-led experiment.

B modes can't be generated by simple scattering, instead pointing to a more complex process -- hence scientists' interest in measuring them. Gravitational lensing, it has long been predicted, can twist E modes into B modes as photons pass by galaxies and other massive objects on their way toward earth. This expectation has now been confirmed.

To tease out the B modes in their data, the scientists used a previously measured map of the distribution of mass in the universe to determine where the gravitational lensing should occur. They combined their measurement of E modes with the mass distribution to provide a template of the expected twisting into B modes. The scientists are currently working with another year of data to further refine their measurement of B modes.

The careful study of such B modes will help physicists better understand the universe. The patterns can be used to map out the distribution of mass, thereby more accurately defining cosmologically important properties like the masses of neutrinos, tiny elementary particles prevalent throughout the cosmos.

Similar, more elusive B modes would provide dramatic evidence of inflation, the theorized turbulent period in the moments after the big bang when the universe expanded extremely rapidly. Inflation is a well-regarded theory among cosmologists because its predictions agree with observations, but thus far there is not a definitive confirmation of the theory. Measuring B modes generated by inflation is a possible way to alleviate lingering doubt.

"The detection of a primordial B-mode polarization signal in the microwave background would amount to finding the first tremors of the Big Bang," said the study's lead author, Duncan Hanson, a postdoctoral scientist at McGill University in Canada.

B modes from inflation are caused by gravitational waves. These ripples in space-time are generated by intense gravitational turmoil, conditions that would have existed during inflation. These waves, stretching and squeezing the fabric of the universe, would give rise to the telltale twisted polarization patterns of B modes. Measuring the resulting polarization would not only confirm the theory of inflation -- a huge scientific achievement in itself -- but would also give scientists information about physics at very high energies -- much higher than can be achieved with particle accelerators.

The measurement of B modes from gravitational lensing is an important first step in the quest to measure inflationary B modes. In inflationary B mode searches, lensing B modes show up as noise. "The new result shows that this noise can be accounted for and subtracted off so that scientists can search for and hopefully measure the inflationary B modes underneath," Hanson said. "The lensing signal itself can also be used by itself to learn about the distribution of mass in the universe."

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Clot-busters, caught on tape

Previous work on this technique, which is called sonothrombolysis, has focused on indirect indications of its effectiveness, including how much a blood clot shrinks or how well blood flow is restored following the procedure. The Toronto team, which included researchers from the University of Toronto and the Sunnybrook Research Institute, tried to catch the clot-killing process in action. Using high-speed photography and a 3-D microscopy technique, researchers discovered that stimulating the microbubbles with ultrasonic pulses pushes the bubbles toward the clots. The bubbles deform the clots' boundaries then begin to burrow into them, creating fluid-filled tunnels that break the clots up from the inside out.

These improvements in the understanding of how sonothrombolysis works will help researchers develop more sophisticated methods of breaking up blood clots, said lead author Christopher Acconcia.

Efforts so far "may only be scratching the surface with respect to effectiveness," said Acconcia. "Our findings provide a tool that can be used to develop more sophisticated sonothrombolysis techniques, which may lead to new tools to safely and efficiently dissolve clots in a clinical setting."

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Engineers make strides toward artificial cartilage

Dec. 13, 2013 — A Duke research team has developed a better recipe for synthetic replacement cartilage in joints.

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Combining two innovative technologies they each helped develop, lead authors Farshid Guilak, a professor of orthopedic surgery and biomedical engineering, and Xuanhe Zhao, assistant professor of mechanical engineering and materials science, found a way to create artificial replacement tissue that mimics both the strength and suppleness of native cartilage. Their results appear Dec. 17 in the journal Advanced Functional Materials.

Articular cartilage is the tissue on the ends of bones where they meet at joints in the body -- including in the knees, shoulders and hips. It can erode over time or be damaged by injury or overuse, causing pain and lack of mobility. While replacing the tissue could bring relief to millions, replicating the properties of native cartilage -- which is strong and load-bearing, yet smooth and cushiony -- has proven a challenge.

In 2007 Guilak and his team developed a three-dimensional fabric "scaffold" into which stem cells could be injected and successfully "grown" into articular cartilage tissue. Constructed of minuscule woven fibers, each of the scaffold's seven layers is about as thick as a human hair. The finished product is about 1 millimeter thick.

Since then, the challenge has been to develop the right medium to fill the empty spaces of the scaffold -- one that can sustain compressive loads, provide a lubricating surface and potentially support the growth of stem cells on the scaffold. Materials supple enough to simulate native cartilage have been too squishy and fragile to grow in a joint and withstand loading. "Think Jell-O," says Guilak. Stronger substances, on the other hand, haven't been smooth and flexible enough.

That's where the partnership with Zhao comes in.

Zhao proposed a theory for the design of durable hydrogels (water-based polymer gels) and in 2012 collaborated with a team from Harvard University to develop an exceptionally strong yet pliable interpenetrating-network hydrogel.

"It's extremely tough, flexible and formable, yet highly lubricating," Zhao says. "It has all the mechanical properties of native cartilage and can withstand wear and tear without fracturing."

He and Guilak began working together to integrate the hydrogel into the fabric of the 3-D woven scaffolds in a process Zhao compares to pouring concrete over a steel framework.

In their experiments, the researchers compared the resulting composite material to other combinations of Guilak's scaffolding embedded with previously studied hydrogels. The tests showed that Zhao's invention was tougher than the competition with a lower coefficient of friction. And though the resulting material did not quite meet the standards of natural cartilage, it easily outperformed all other known potential artificial replacements across the board, including the hydrogel and scaffolding by themselves.

"From a mechanical standpoint, this technology remedies the issues that other types of synthetic cartilage have had," says Zhao, founder of Duke's Soft Active Materials (SAMs) Laboratory. "It's a very promising candidate for artificial cartilage in the future."

The team's next step will likely be to implant small patches of the synthetic cartilage in animal models, according to Guilak and Zhao.

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Jailhouse wine not as delicious as it sounds, could be deadly

"Evidently the incorporation of an old baked potato in the pruno recipe allowed botulism to develop," said Megan Fix, MD, of the Division of Emergency Medicine at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. "The patient who cooked the wine had cooked this recipe approximately 20 times previously without a potato, but his decision to experiment sickened him and seven other inmates. The patients' initial reluctance to confess their consumption of pruno could have been deadly since botulism requires fast intervention."

Eight patients came to the emergency department from a Utah prison with trouble swallowing, double vision, difficulty speaking and weakness approximately 54 hours after ingestion of the potato-based pruno. The amount of pruno prisoners consumed varied greatly, with some patients reportedly ingesting over two gallons. The three most severely affected patients had respiratory failure and were intubated.

Because botulism anti-toxin is held in stockpiles around the country by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in case of bioterrorism attack, the process of obtaining the anti-toxin takes some time. In this case it took about 9 hours from suspicion of diagnosis to administration of the anti-toxin. All patients received botulism anti-toxin within 12 hours from being admitted to the ED.

Foodborne botulism poisoning is extremely rare, with a typical incidence of about 20 cases per year in the United States.

"The CDC is the only source for botulism anti-toxin," said Dr. Fix. "However, there are a number of steps involved in obtaining it. The CDC recommends that emergency physicians treat patients first, if botulism is suspected, rather than waiting for a positive test. Therefore it's important to contact the CDC to obtain the anti-toxin based on clinical suspicion as we can't treat the disease without having the anti-toxin in hand!"

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Chimpanzees are rational, not conformists

Dec. 13, 2013 — Chimpanzees are sensitive to social influences but they maintain their own strategy to solve a problem rather than conform to what the majority of group members are doing. However, chimpanzees do change their strategy when they can obtain greater rewards, MPI researchers found. The study was published in PLOS ONE on November 28, 2013.

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Chimpanzees are known for their curious nature. They show a rich palette of learning behaviour, both individually and socially. But they are also rather hesitant to abandon their personal preferences, even when that familiar behaviour becomes extremely ineffective. Under which circumstances would chimpanzees flexibly adjust their behaviour? Edwin van Leeuwen and colleagues from the MPI's for Psycholinguistics and Evolutionary Anthropology conducted a series of experiments in Germany and Zambia to answer this question.

Wooden balls for peanuts

The researchers studied 16 captive chimpanzees at the Wolfgang Kohler Primate Research Center in Germany (Leipzig) and 12 semi-wild chimpanzees at the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage Trust, a sanctuary that houses more than a hundred chimpanzees under nearly natural conditions in the north-western part of Zambia. Chimpanzees were trained on two different vending machines. A minority of the group was made familiar with one machine and the majority of group members with the other machine. Wooden balls were thrown into their enclosure; the chimpanzees could insert these balls into the machines to receive one peanut for each ball.

Van Leeuwen and his colleagues first aimed to replicate previous research and looked whether the chimpanzees in the minority group would change their behaviour toward using the vending machine that the majority of group members used. However, neither the German nor the Zambian chimpanzees gave up their strategy to join the majority. In the second study, the profitability of the vending machines was changed so that the vending machine that the minority used became more profitable, now spitting out five rewards for every ball inserted. Over time, the majority chimpanzees observed that the minority chimpanzees received more peanuts for the same effort and all but one gradually switched to using this more profitable machine.

Higher rewards

"Where chimpanzees do not readily change their behaviour under majority influences, they do change their behaviour when they can maximise their payoffs," Van Leeuwen says. "We conclude that chimpanzees may prefer persevering in successful and familiar strategies over adopting the equally effective strategy of the majority, but that chimpanzees find sufficient incentive in changing their behaviour when they can obtain higher rewards somewhere else." "So, it's peanuts over popularity" he jokingly adds.

The researchers emphasise that these results may be dependent upon the specific trade-offs that were created by the experimental design and that chimpanzees could act differently under the pressures of life in the wild. Van Leeuwen: "Conformity could still be a process guiding chimpanzees' behaviour. Chimpanzee females, for instance, disperse to other groups in the wild. For these females, it is of vital importance to integrate into the new group. Conformity to local (foraging) customs might help them to achieve this integration."

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Scientists improve human self-control through electrical brain stimulation

Study participants were asked to perform a simple behavioral task that required the braking/slowing of action -- inhibition -- in the brain. In each participant, the researchers first identified the specific location for this brake in the prefrontal region of the brain. Next, they increased activity in this brain region using stimulation with brief and imperceptible electrical charges. This led to increased braking -- a form of enhanced self-control.

This proof-of-principle study appears in the Dec. 11 issue of The Journal of Neuroscience and its methods may one day be useful for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome and other severe disorders of self-control.

"There is a circuit in the brain for inhibiting or braking responses," said Nitin Tandon, M.D., the study's senior author and associate professor in The Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery at the UTHealth Medical School. "We believe we are the first to show that we can enhance this braking system with brain stimulation."

A computer stimulated the prefrontal cortex exactly when braking was needed. This was done using electrodes implanted directly on the brain surface.

When the test was repeated with stimulation of a brain region outside the prefrontal cortex, there was no effect on behavior, showing the effect to be specific to the prefrontal braking system.

This was a double-blind study, meaning that participants and scientists did not know when or where the charges were being administered.

The method of electrical stimulation was novel in that it apparently enhanced prefrontal function, whereas other human brain stimulation studies mostly disrupt normal brain activity. This is the first published human study to enhance prefrontal lobe function using direct electrical stimulation, the researchers report.

The study involved four volunteers with epilepsy who agreed to participate while being monitored for seizures at the Mischer Neuroscience Institute at Memorial Hermann-Texas Medical Center (TMC). Stimulation enhanced braking in all four participants.

Tandon has been working on self-control research with researchers at the University of California, San Diego, for five years. "Our daily life is full of occasions when one must inhibit responses. For example, one must stop speaking when it's inappropriate to the social context and stop oneself from reaching for extra candy," said Tandon, who is a neurosurgeon with the Mischer Neuroscience Institute at Memorial Hermann-TMC.

The researchers are quick to point out that while their results are promising, they do not yet point to the ability to improve self-control in general. In particular, this study does not show that direct electrical stimulation is a realistic option for treating human self-control disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome and borderline personality disorder. Notably, direct electrical stimulation requires an invasive surgical procedure, which is now used only for the localization and treatment of severe epilepsy.

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True story: Not everyone lies frequently

Rony Halevy, Bruno Verschuere (University of Amsterdam), and Shaul Shalvi (Ben-Gurion University), surveyed 527 people to find out how often they had lied over the past 24 hours. 41% of the respondents indicated that they had not lied at all, whereas just 5% turned out to be accountable for 40% of all of the lies told.

To find out whether the respondents were honest about the frequency of their lying, they were invited to take part in an additional lab test. They were asked to roll dice and received a sum of money depending on the number they reported having rolled. Because the researchers were unable to see the actual numbers rolled, participants were free to cheat and report higher numbers. Participants who had already admitted to lying more frequently also had higher winnings in this dice test, indicating that participants, who said they lie often, did indeed lie often. Statistically, their scores were so implausible that they are likely to have lied about the numbers they rolled, rather enjoying a series of lucky rolls.

Previous studies found that, on average, survey participants admitted to lying twice a day. According to the study, this does not permit the conclusion that everyone lies. Because this is an average, it gives a distorted picture of individual differences in lying behavior.

"The fact that participants who indicated lying often actually did lie more often in the dice test demonstrates that they were honest about their dishonesty," said Verschuere. It may be that frequent liars show more psychopathic traits and therefore have no trouble admitting to lying frequently."

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Materials RD UK scientists work on super-fridge

2013/12/13

Scientists at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and Imperial College are working on a project which they say “could completely change the refrigeration industry”.

Traditional refrigeration methods could be replaced by a more efficient and environmentally friendly cooling alternative which uses the electrocaloric effect to develop new methods of cooling.

The electrocaloric effect is a phenomenon in which a material changes temperature under an applied electric field.

Current domestic refrigeration uses vapour compression. Freon gas, for example, can be cooled and condensed into a liquid. This liquid then absorbs heat from the refrigeration area, causing it to re-evaporate, where it begins the cycle again.

These chemicals can be harmful to the environment when disposed of or if they leak. The method also has low efficiency, requiring high energy input to create adequate cooling.

Thermoelectric and magnetic cooling technologies have been put forward as environmentally-friendly alternatives to vapour compression. However, these technologies struggle to compete with vapour-compression due to intrinsically low energy efficiency (maximum 10%), and the need for large and expensive magnets to generate the magnetic fields needed to run magnetic coolers.

However, an electrocaloric cooler, says Maciej Rokosz – PhD student at NPL and Imperial, “could potentially deliver higher efficiency than vapour compression – as the creation of an electric field requires less energy than the compression process to create the same level of cooling.”

“It could also offer reduced size and weight, making it viable for applications like cooling electronics,” said Rokosz.

According to Tatiana Correia, a scientist at NPL who is leading the project: it is possible over the next three years to develop “the first electrocaloric refrigerator ever to operate close to room temperature”.

NPL is also leading a new multimillion pound project funded by European Metrology Research Programme, METCO (Metrology of Electro-Thermal Coupling) which brings together Europe’s leading research centres and industry to develop unique capabilities for the traceable and accurate measurements of electrocaloric effect in materials.

“We are confident that our design ideas, combined with the expertise we have at NPL and Imperial, will be able to develop a viable cooler,” said Correia.

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Simple mathematical formula describes human struggles

Dec. 12, 2013 — Would you believe that a broad range of human struggles can be understood by using a mathematical formula? From child-parent struggles to cyber-attacks and civil unrest, they can all be explained with a simple mathematical expression called a "power-law."

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In a sort of unified theory of human conflict, scientists have found a way to mathematically describe the severity and timing of human confrontations that affect us personally and as a society.

For example, the manner in which a baby's cries escalate against its parent is comparable to the way riots in Poland escalated in the lead-up to the collapse of the Soviet Union. It comes down to the fact that the perpetrator in both cases (e.g. baby, rioters) adapts quickly enough to escalate its attacks against the larger, but more sluggish entity (e.g. parent, government), who is unable, or unwilling, to respond quickly enough to satisfy the perpetrator, according to a new study published in Nature's Scientific Reports.

"By picking out a specific baby (and parent), and studying what actions of the parent make the child escalate or de-escalate its cries, we can understand better how to counteract cyber-attacks against a particular sector of U.S. cyber infrastructure, or how an outbreak of civil unrest in a given location (e.g. Syria) will play out, following particular government interventions," says Neil Johnson, professor of physics and the head of the interdisciplinary research group in Complexity, at the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Miami (UM) and corresponding author of the study.

Respectively, the study finds some remarkable similarities between seemingly disconnected confrontations. For instance:

The escalation of violent attacks in Magdalena, Colombia -- though completely cut off from the rest of the world -- is actually representative of all modern wars. Meanwhile, the conflict in Sierra Leone, Africa, has exactly the same dynamics as the narco-guerilla war in Antioquia, Colombia.
The pattern of attacks by predatory traders against General Electric (GE) stock is equivalent to the pattern of cyber-attacks against the U.S. hi-tech electronics sector by foreign groups, which in turn mimics specific infants and parents.
New insight into the controversial 'Bloody Sunday' attack by the British security forces, against civilians, on January 30,1972, reveals that Bloody Sunday appears to be the culmination of escalating Provisional Irish Republican Army attacks, not their trigger, hence raising new questions about its strategic importance.

The findings show that this mathematical formula of the form AB-C is a valuable tool that can be applied to make quantitative predictions concerning future attacks in a given confrontation. It can also be used to create an intervention strategy against the perpetrators and, more broadly, as a quantitative starting point for cross-disciplinary theorizing about human aggression, at the individual and group level, in both real and online worlds.

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Wrist fracture significantly raises risk of hip fracture

Researchers T.-L. Huang and C.-W. Chen from the China Medical University in Chinese Taipei, studied whether Colles' fracture (fracture of the distal radius in the forearm, i.e. wrist fracture) increased hip fracture risk within one year, in an Asian population.

The investigators extracted data for patients with newly diagnosed Colles' fracture from records of both ambulatory and in-patient care during the years 2000-2006 and compared fracture risk in this group to a cohort without Colles' fracture. Both study groups were followed up for one year to measure the incidence of hip fracture using three different calculation models.

The results showed that hip-fracture incidence in the Colles' fracture cohort, was six times higher than that of the comparison cohort (56.0 vs 9.3 per 10,000 person-years). Other findings showed that hip-fracture incidence among the fracture group was highest within one month after the Colles' fracture and that hip-fracture incidence increased with age. Both Colles' fracture and osteoporosis were significant independent factors that predicted hip fracture. However, one model showed that the hazard of hip fracture was much greater for patients with Colles' fracture (HR, 6.59; 95% CI, 4.74-9.17) than for patients with osteoporosis (HR, 4.30; 95% CI, 2.95-6.26). The hazard of hip fracture increased further for patients with osteoporosis who had also experienced Colles' fracture (HR, 7.73; 95% CI, , 4.72-12.7).

Welcome to SUV System Ltd!

SUV System Ltd is ISO 90012008 Certified electronics distributor with 10 years of experiences.

Electronic Components distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com

Connectors Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/Connectors-1.html

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Viewpoints Confidence is growing in the UK CEM market, says WPS

2013/12/13

With UK electronics manufacturing increasing, investment in new designs rising and confidence slowly returning to the market, 2013 has been a pivotal year for both us and the CEM sector globally, writes Nick Jones, sales director, Wilson Process Systems.

I am delighted to see the UK CEM market is on a definite upward curve and in a recovery phase. However, although there appears to be a little more confidence in the wider market, existing customers still aren’t able to give us more than 2-3 months visibility of their requirements but they are placing new orders, which is always encouraging.

New business enquiries from existing and potential new customers have also gradually been increasing throughout the year, which is indicative of an increased investment in new design.

A couple of key decisions this year have helped the company boost its market share. Firstly we invested £500,000 in high quality bespoke production equipment that has boosted our general SMT throughput capabilities and given us the ability to manufacture boards as large as 3m x 1.3m, as a fully automated process, that are increasingly required for display and lighting applications.

Secondly we took the decision to aim for ISO13485 accreditation for the manufacture of electronic assemblies used in medical applications. The medical equipment market in the UK is enormous and hasn’t suffered from a lack of investment as other markets have.

Discussing our intentions for ISO13485 with existing customers has already opened new opportunities for us and once we achieve the required standard early next year I am sure it will open up exciting new opportunities with new customers and help us achieve our growth targets for 2014.

As we edge towards 2014 I feel more certain of future investment and growth than I have been for a while. Confidence is slowly returning and I believe the UK CEM market is healthier than it has been for a number of years.

Welcome to SUV System Ltd!

SUV System Ltd is ISO 90012008 Certified electronics distributor with 10 years of experiences.

Electronic Components distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com

Connectors Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/Connectors-1.html

IC Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/IC(Integrated-Circuits)-1.html

LED Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/LED-1.html

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Resistor Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/Resistors-1.html

Diode Distributor:http://www.suvsystem.com/l/Diodes-1.html

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